The Art of War: Deception and Destruction Tactics That Altered History

Military battles and wars incorporate the use of many tactics of deception and destruction, whether through deterrence and coercion, annihilation, and more, these strategies aim to result in victory for those implementing them. War isn't a new concept. There is evidence of ancient civilizations that date to the Mesolithic era taking part in battle, and historians believe the first war in recorded history was between the armies of Sumer and Elam in 2700 BCE in Mesopotamia.

Ancient Chinese general and philosopher, Sun Tzu, who lived from 544 to 496 B.C., wrote the classic military treatise, "The Art of War," which details how war should be avoided with diplomacy, and if this isn't possible, war should be fought strategically and psychologically to minimize damage and avoid wasting resources. It is still a foundational text in military tactics.

To compile a list of military deception and destruction tactics that altered history, 24/7 Tempo reviewed sources such as Britannica, The Smithsonian Magazine, History, Holocaust Encyclopedia, and the National WWII Museum, using editorial discretion to select particularly famous and/or influential examples. This list is not comprehensive.

Terrorist actions like the 9/11 attacks in the U.S. and the recent Hamas incursions into Israel, though they qualify as surprise attacks, are not included as military tactics because they did not involve conventional military forces. (Here are the biggest surprise attacks in military history.)

• Where and when: Georgia, Nov. 15-Dec. 21, 1864

An example not of ambush or other subterfuge but a strategy of "total war," this march from Atlanta to Savannah by Union forces during the Civil War, led by Major-General William Tecumseh Sherman, swept across the Georgia countryside destroying bridges, tunnels, railroad tracks, cottonfields, factories, military installations, plantations, slave quarters, and more.

Historians say that Sherman's motivation was to cripple the Confederacy with a minimum loss of life. His actions economically and psychologically weakened the Southern states, eventually leading to the Confederate surrender. The march has also been studied by historians as a vivid example of psychological warfare and has influenced more recent military tactics. Some even credit Sherman with having invented modern warfare.

• Where and when: Spain, Poland, Belgium, The Netherlands, France, Soviet Union, 1936-1941

Instead of a single strategic maneuver, Blitzkrieg, translated as "lightning war," was a German military doctrine during World War II. This approach was echoed much later by the unsuccessful U.S. "shock and awe" strategy at the onset of the Iraq War, which aimed to overwhelm the enemy with everything at once. For the Germans, this involved deploying their agile tank units and mechanized forces in coordination with artillery and air assaults.

While the term and tactics gained public attention with the Nazi invasion of Poland in 1939, the Germans had earlier used similar methods to aid their Fascist allies in Spain during the 1936 Spanish Civil War. (The proto-Blitzkrieg bombing of a town in the Basque region inspired Picasso's epic painting "Guernica.")

Despite their eventual defeat, the Nazis' Blitzkrieg strategy enabled them to conquer and maintain control of large parts of Europe for at least two years, leaving a profound psychological impact even in regions they didn't occupy. Regarded as a significant development in military tactics, Blitzkrieg is credited with influencing American military doctrine well into modern times.

• Where and when: Straits of Salamis, Greece, Sept. 26 or 27, 480 B.C.

Not only the most important battle of the Greco-Persian Wars but arguably one of the most important in history, this naval engagement resulted in an unexpected victory by the vastly outnumbered Greek fleet, thanks to the strategies of its commander, Themistocles. He lured the Persians to the island of Salamis, and when they arrived and attempted to blockade the Greeks in the straits between the island and the mainland, Greek ships emerged from hidden coves and attacked.

Crowded into the comparatively narrow waterway, where they could not efficiently maneuver, the Persian vessels were easy prey. The battle claimed about 300 of them, while the Greeks lost only 40 of their ships. It has been said that Western history would have been very different had the Persians won, because they would have pressed on and conquered all of Greece, suppressing the culture that ultimately gave the world so much of our science, philosophy, and systems of government.

• Where and when: Oahu, Hawaii, Dec. 7, 1941

In the 1930s, Japan wanted to expand its empire into China, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific, fearing intervention by the American navy. To preempt this threat, they launched a devastating surprise attack on the Pearl Harbor headquarters of the U.S. Pacific Fleet on the morning of Dec. 7, 1941 – an event President Roosevelt famously labeled "a date which will live in infamy."

Japanese bombers and miniature submarines appeared unexpectedly, sinking four battleships and disabling countless other vessels, damaging or destroying over 300 aircraft, and claiming more than 2,400 lives, including 68 civilians. The reasons behind the success of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor have never been fully explained, but it can be attributed to a failure of military intelligence and the unwillingness of both military and political leaders to take the threat seriously.

Following the attack, the U.S. declared war on Japan the next day. Shortly after, Germany and Italy, Japan's allies, declared war on the U.S., leading the nation into one of the longest and deadliest conflicts in modern history.

• Where and when: Somewhere north of Trenton, NJ, Dec. 25-26, 1776

Nobody would have expected George Washington to ferry 2,400 of his troops across a river clogged with ice floes in the middle of a raging snowstorm, and on Christmas night to boot – least of all the 1,500 Hessian mercenaries serving under the British who were garrisoned at Trenton. It was a gamble, but such a desperate measure was called for, as the Continental Army's morale was low after defeats in Long Island and northern New Jersey.

The Hessians felt secure in their encampment, certain that Washington was far away, but the crossing was successful, and his troops quickly marched nine miles south to Trenton where they attacked the oblivious Hessians. More than 100 of the mercenaries were killed and almost 1,000 captured.

News of the triumph reinvigorated the Continental Army's spirits, attracted recruits, and reassured citizens of the newly declared United States of America, inspiring the nascent nation to continue battling the British until they achieved victory five years later.

• Where and when: Kalkriese (present-day Bramsche), Germany, 9-11 A.D.

In the early years of the first millennium A.D., a Roman-educated German soldier named Arminius, for reasons still debated, convinced the Romans that a rebellion was brewing in the Germanic lands. The Roman legate, Publius Quinctilius Varus, led a force of about 15,000 elite soldiers into the region to put the rebellion down. While marching along a narrow trail through the forest, they were ambushed by barbarian forces from all sides, leading to their near-total annihilation.

Varus, overwhelmed by the disaster, committed suicide. This devastating defeat, one of the worst in Roman history, created lasting effects on central Europe, and a permanent cultural and linguistic barrier between Germanic and Latin civilizations, ultimately setting the stage for the conditions that led to both world wars.

• Where and when: Southwestern Japan, Aug. 6 and 9, 1945

Controversial to this day, the stealth bombing of two cities in southwestern Japan – with horrible weapons that had never before been employed in warfare – was justified in America's corridors of power by the fact that Japan refused to surrender, even after the Germans had put down their arms in May of '45.

Between mid-April and mid-July of the year, Japanese forces in the Pacific inflicted a particularly large number of casualties on the Allies, fighting even more fiercely as they saw defeat looming. The Potsdam Declaration, issued by President Truman and other Allied leaders on July 26, demanded that Japan surrender and warned that if it didn't, it could expect "prompt and utter destruction."

The Japanese refused to reply, and within a few days, American B-29 bombers jolted the world by dropping atomic bombs on the two cities. More than 200,000 Japanese citizens were probably killed between the two cities, either immediately or from the effects of radiation. On Aug. 15, Japan's emperor, Hirohito, announced his country's unconditional surrender.

Besides ending the war and preventing further loss of life, the bombings set the stage for an escalation of the nuclear age, whose effects are still felt today.

• Where and when: Hailesaltede, near Hastings (present-day East Sussex, England), Oct. 14, 1066

William, the Duke of Normandy – who later earned the title of William the Conqueror – believed that the throne of England rightfully belonged to him and not to the recently installed Anglo-Saxon English king Harold Godwinson. About two weeks after successfully landing a large force of troops at Pevensey, near Hastings, William faced Harold in battle.

The English army occupied high ground, behind an unbroken wall of shields. After William failed at an attempt to breach their defenses, he led his men into a feigned retreat. This tempted some of the English to pursue them, but once they had left their positions, they were vulnerable to William's cavalry, and those who remained in the weakened shield wall were easy prey for his infantry.

Harold was killed during the battle, and William, after further smaller battles, was crowned King of England on Christmas Day. William's victory, according to the website Historic UK, meant that "England would henceforth be ruled by an oppressive foreign aristocracy, which in turn would influence the entire ecclesiastical and political institutions of Christendom." Beyond that, under the Normans, the French language infiltrated English to an astonishing extent.

It is estimated that by 1400, one in five English words derived from French, and the influx has given us a rich range of synonyms in which one derives from Anglo-Saxon and one from French – for instance "kingly" and "royal," "lawyer" and "attorney," "weird" and strange," and "belly" and "stomach."