The Most Monumental Political Stories of the Turbulent 1960s

On May 1, the Soviet Union shot down a U-2, a spy plane capable of flying at altitudes as high as 70,000 feet, capturing pilot Francis Gary Powers and causing an international crisis. The U.S. was embarrassed as the event revealed the extent of clandestine operations over Russia and contradicted initial American claims that the U-2 was a weather reconnaissance plane. Powers was tried for espionage and given a 10-year sentence, but in 1962, he was traded back to the U.S. in exchange for convicted Soviet spy Rudolf Abel.

On May 11, Eichmann, a chief architect of the Holocaust, was captured by Israeli agents in Buenos Aires, where he had gained sanctuary after World War II. He had been living under a pseudonym, evading justice for his war crimes. His capture led to a high-profile trial in Israel and he was hanged for his crimes in 1962.

In 1961, the CIA trained and supplied a force of Cuban exiles who landed in the Bahía de los Cochinos – the Bay of Pigs – on Cuba’s southern coast in April intending to overthrow Fidel Castro’s newly created communist regime. However, the invasion ended disastrously within three days, as Castro’s forces quickly overwhelmed the insurgents, and promised air support by the U.S. did not materialize. The event was a massive embarrassment for the U.S., intensifying Cold War tensions and solidifying Castro’s power in Cuba.

Rep. Thomas F. Johnson (D-Md.) was indicted in 1962 amid a scandal involving the Maryland savings and loan industry. Johnson, along with industry members, faced charges of bribery, shaking the political landscape. The high-profile case underscored the alleged corruption within the S&L industry and its influence on local politics.

The Cuban Missile Crisis was a 13-day standoff between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. It began when American intelligence discovered Soviet nuclear missiles stationed in Cuba in October 1962. President John F. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade of Cuba and demanded the missiles’ removal. The crisis brought the world to the brink of nuclear war but was defused after intense negotiations, with the Soviet Union agreeing to remove the weapons and the United States withdrawing missiles from Turkey, bordering the Soviet Union, and pledging not to undertake another invasion of Cuba.

The groundbreaking book by Rachel Carson, “Silent Spring,” exposed the damaging effects of pesticides, particularly DDT, on the environment, leading to widespread public concern. Carson’s work sparked intense debate, making headlines and prompting scrutiny of chemical companies. The book’s influence was significant, leading to a shift in public policy and the establishment of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

In 1963, Attorney General Robert Kennedy approved wiretapping Martin Luther King Jr.’s phones, intensifying the government’s scrutiny of the civil rights leader. This decision came in the wake of King’s historic “I Have a Dream” speech, which heightened his profile and led the FBI to label him “the most dangerous and effective Negro leader in the country.” The wiretapping was part of a broader campaign against King, which was widely reported in the news that year.

Representative Frank W. Boykin (D-Ala.) was convicted in 1963 on conflict of interest and conspiracy charges related to land deals in Virginia and Maryland. He was fined and sentenced to six months’ probation. President Lyndon B. Johnson pardoned Boykin in 1965. Boykin was one of the longest-serving congressmen from Alabama.

The South Vietnamese coup in 1963 led to the assassination of President Ngo Dinh Diem, signaling a major turning point in the Vietnam War. A faction within the South Vietnamese army executed the coup amid Diem’s oppressive policies and religious discrimination. The event was globally significant, stirring international controversy and exacerbating the already volatile situation in Vietnam. According to the report commissioned by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara in 1967 – and revealed with the release of the so-called Pentagon Papers in 1971 – the U.S. government played a key role in the coup.

The Profumo Affair of 1963 was a potent mix of sex, espionage, and politics in the U.K. that raised concerns about an intelligence breach involving American and British intelligence services. John Profumo, U.K. secretary of state for war, had an affair with model Christine Keeler, who was in turn in a relationship with a Russian naval attaché. When Profumo lied to Parliament about the relationship, it was seen as a breach of national security and a personal failing. The compromised affair led to Profumo’s resignation and destabilized Harold Macmillan’s Conservative government.

President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas on Nov. 22 while riding in a motorcade with his wife, Jacqueline, and Texas Governor John Connally and his wife. Disaffected former U.S. Marine Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested for the crime but was shot and killed by Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby just two days later, so never brought to trial. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was swiftly sworn in as president, marking a sudden and tragic transition of power. This event and its aftermath ignited widespread controversy and numerous conspiracy theories that live on today.

Brazil’s reformist President João Goulart was ousted in a military coup, supported by the U.S. and its ambassador, Lincoln Gordon. Goulart sought to combat illiteracy, limit profit transfers by multinational companies, and redistribute land. His reforms, however, drew significant opposition, and a rebellion broke out in the state of Minas Gerais, soon spreading across the country. The plotters’ ultimate success marked the beginning of a 21-year military dictatorship in Brazil and a significant shift in the nation’s political landscape.

The Johnson Administration thought in 1964 that the only way to prevent the spread of communism in Southeast Asia was to support South Vietnamese raids against North Vietnam. To this end, the U.S. Navy had two destroyers, the Maddox and the Turner Joy, stationed in the Gulf of Tonkin, off the coast of northern Vietnam and southern China. It was initially reported that two North Vietnamese patrol boats had launched an unprovoked attack on the U.S. ships, leading to Congress passing the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted President Lyndon B. Johnson authority to escalate U.S. involvement in Vietnam. Subsequent investigations suggested the incident was overblown and may have involved misinterpretations of radar data, fueling debate about the U.S.’s entry into the Vietnam War.

Far-right Arizona Sen. Barry Goldwater ran for the United States presidency in 1964. His campaign was characterized by his hawkish stance on Cold War issues, leading critics to label him a warmonger. This image, compounded with his controversial opposition to the Civil Rights Act, contributed to his overwhelming electoral defeat to incumbent President Lyndon B. Johnson. The campaign was covered in the media for its stark ideological divide and its influence on the future direction of the Republican Party.

Anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964 in Robben Island Prison off the coast of Cape Town for conspiring to overthrow the South African government. He served more than 25 years, during which time his incarceration prompted international appeals for his release. This event drew global attention to South Africa’s apartheid regime, intensifying calls for its abolition. The United States avoided criticizing the government’s racial policies, partly because many southern U.S. states had similar policies under Jim Crow laws – but in the mid-to-late 1960s, the U.S. imposed an armament embargo on South Africa and reduced trade. Mandela was released in February 1990.

The U.S. Surgeon General Luther Terry officially announced in 1964 that cigarette smoking causes lung cancer, based on comprehensive reviews of more than 7,000 medical studies. This announcement, made amid rising smoking rates and industry advertising, marked a critical turning point in public health, sparking significant policy changes and public awareness campaigns about the dangers of smoking. In 2006, a federal judge ruled that cigarette makers were involved in a 50-year conspiracy to deceive the public about the dangers of smoking.

Malcolm X, a prominent Black Muslim leader known for his oftentimes inflammatory advocacy for racial justice, was assassinated on Feb. 21, 1965, while making a speech in New York City. Three men – Mujahid Abdul Halim, Muhammad A. Aziz, and Khalil Islam – were charged with the murder, and all were given sentences of 20 years to life. Halim, who had been seen shooting Malcolm X, served his time and was paroled in 2010. Aziz and Islam – who Halim said were not involved in the crime – were paroled earlier, Aziz in 1985, and Islam in 1987.

Both were exonerated in 2021, after decades of criticisms of the case against them. Civil rights attorney Ben Crump filed a federal action on behalf of Malcolm X’s family in February 2023, accusing the CIA and the New York Police Department of “fraudulent concealment of evidence surrounding Malcolm X’s murder.”

U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War escalated dramatically in 1965. President Lyndon B. Johnson authorized the deployment of combat troops to South Vietnam, marking a turning point in advisory and support roles. The decision came in a belated response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. This marked the beginning of a long and contentious conflict that stirred great controversy and division in the United States.

In 1966, China’s Cultural Revolution, aimed at reinforcing the achievements of the nation and destroying anything considered traditional or capitalistic, was launched by Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong. Mao mobilized the youth in a campaign against “bourgeois” elements, leading to widespread chaos, with millions persecuted, historical relics destroyed, and educational systems disrupted. The news of the year was dominated by the massive rallies, violent class struggle, and the rise of the Red Guards, radical students devoted to Mao’s ideology.

Bobby Baker, Secretary to the Senate Majority Leader and a close advisor of President Johnson resigned his position in 1963 during a Senate investigation into his business dealings and political machinations. In 1967, he was convicted of tax evasion, conspiracy to defraud the government, and theft, and served 18 months in prison.

The Six-Day War in 1967 was a pivotal event in Middle Eastern history. It began when Israel launched preemptive strikes against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, fearing an imminent attack. The swift Israeli victory expanded its territory significantly, capturing the Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip, West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights. This territorial expansion, coupled with the displacement of Palestinian populations, heightened tensions and set the stage for the enduring Israeli-Palestinian conflict that continues to this day.

In 1968, thousands of Mexican-American students in East Los Angeles staged a mass walkout, known as the “Blowout,” to protest educational inequality. Sparking the first major urban protest of the Chicano civil rights movement, students demanded better resources and fair treatment. Their actions, which led to repercussions including arrests, marked a pivotal moment in the fight for educational justice and attracted widespread media attention.

The Democratic Convention in Chicago was marred by violence during one of America’s most turbulent years. As Democrats gathered to select their presidential candidate, outside anti-war and civil-rights protestors clashed with police. The convention became notorious for the violent police response, widely reported in the media, which saw tear gas used and hundreds of protestors arrested or injured, in what has been often described as a “police riot.”

In this single year, two significant advocates for non-violent change, Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy, were assassinated, deepening America’s social and political divisions. King, a civil rights leader, was shot in Memphis on April 4. Kennedy, a presidential candidate, was killed in Los Angeles on June 5. Both murders, occurring during a turbulent period marked by war and civil unrest, sent shockwaves through the nation and dominated headlines.

The Tet Offensive in 1968 was a major turning point in the Vietnam War. Launched by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces on the Lunar New Year holiday, Tet, the offensive failed to instigate a nationwide uprising against South Vietnam as planned. However, it significantly undermined American confidence in our ability to win the war, due to the surprise and intensity of the attacks, which were widely covered by the global media.

The My Lai Massacre occurred on March 16, when U.S. soldiers, led by Lieutenant William Calley, killed between 347 and 504 unarmed Vietnamese civilians in the My Lai and My Khe hamlets. The troops, believing the villagers were harboring Viet Cong, carried out the massacre under orders to destroy the village. Initially covered up, news of the event broke in late 1969, sparking international outrage and fueling anti-war sentiment.

U.S. Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas resigned in 1969 after it was revealed that he had accepted a paid consultancy from industrialist Louis Wolfson, a convicted criminal. This marked an unprecedented event in the Supreme Court’s history, as Fortas was the first justice to give up his position under such circumstances. Although no formal charges were filed against him, the disclosure sparked significant controversy.

After leaving a party on Chappaquiddick Island in Massachusetts, Senator Ted Kennedy (D-Mass.) drove his car off a bridge. He was traveling with Mary Jo Kopechne, who had worked on his brother Robert’s presidential campaign the previous year, and Kopechne was apparently trapped in the vehicle and drowned. Kennedy did not report the incident to the police until the following morning, sparking controversy and landing him a suspended sentence for leaving the scene of an accident. This incident heavily influenced Kennedy’s future political career and likely scuttled any possibility of him becoming president.

On the morning of June 28, the NYPD raided the Stonewall Inn, a gay establishment in Greenwich Village. This incursion triggered an uproar among both bar attendees and local inhabitants, resulting in six days of demonstrations and confrontations with law enforcement. This incident served as a pivotal moment in the struggle for LGBTQ+ rights and the establishment of several civil rights groups.

Muammar Gaddafi led a bloodless coup in Libya in 1969, overthrowing King Idris and establishing the Libyan Arab Republic. Gaddafi’s revolutionary government pursued a pan-Arab ideology, nationalized the oil industry, and implemented Islamic law. The regime soon became known for its sponsorship of global terrorism, which extended into the 21st century. The consequences of Gaddafi’s rise to power in 1969 reverberated worldwide for decades until he was deposed in 2011.

Having defeated both the Democratic Party nominee for president, Hubert Humphrey, and the American Independent Party candidate, segregationist George Wallace, Nixon claimed victory in 1968, giving new life to the Republican Party – which would win seven out of 10 presidential elections between ’68 and 2004. He claimed office on Jan. 20, sworn in by Chief Justice Earl Warren.

Amid heightened Cold War tensions, the U.S., fearing the rise of socialist movements in Uruguay, reportedly dispatched a CIA team there to aid local authorities. The team allegedly guided police in honing coercive interrogation techniques. These events presaged the 1973 coup, which ushered in a U.S.-friendly president, a change that would significantly alter Uruguay’s political landscape.